The importance, benefits, and future of nanobiosensors for infectious diseases.

Infectious diseases, caused by pathogenic microorganisms such as bacteria, viruses, parasites, or fungi, are crucial for efficient disease management, reducing morbidity and mortality rates and controlling disease spread. Traditional laboratory-based diagnostic methods face challenges such as high costs, time consumption, and a lack of trained personnel in resource-poor settings. Diagnostic biosensors have gained momentum as a potential solution, offering advantages such as low cost, high sensitivity, ease of use, and portability. Nanobiosensors are a promising tool for detecting and diagnosing infectious diseases such as coronavirus disease, human immunodeficiency virus, and hepatitis. These sensors use nanostructured carbon nanotubes, graphene, and nanoparticles to detect specific biomarkers or pathogens. They operate through mechanisms like the lateral flow test platform, where a sample containing the biomarker or pathogen is applied to a test strip. If present, the sample binds to specific recognition probes on the strip, indicating a positive result. This binding event is visualized through a colored line. This review discusses the importance, benefits, and potential of nanobiosensors in detecting infectious diseases.

Diagnóstico microbiológico de la infección por SARS-CoV-2 durante la pandemia en Navarra / Microbiological diagnosis of SARS-CoV-2 infection during the pandemic in Navarra

El diagnóstico microbiológico es esencial en el conocimiento y manejo de las enfermedadesinfecciosas, tanto en los procesos habituales de la práctica clínica como en la aparición denuevos microorganismos, como en los próximos que puedan aparecer con el cambio climáticoy la nueva situación de los vectores que transmiten enfermedades en nuestro medio. El 11 de marzo 2020 la Organización Mundial de la Salud declaró la alerta por pandemiamundial por SARS-CoV-2 que se descubrió y se aisló por primera vez en Wuhan, China, en unbrote de neumonía de etiología desconocida vinculada a un mercado. Es una infección quetiene un origen zoonótico, se transmitió de un huésped animal a uno humano. Actualmente nose conoce de forma clara de dónde proviene el SARS-CoV-2. A principios de enero de 2020, científicos chinos anunciaron que habían aislado y secuenciadocompletamente el virus y lo publicaron; esto permitió disponer de técnicas de PCR para realizar eldiagnóstico de la infección por SARS Cov2 en todo el mundo. El objetivo de este trabajo es revisarel papel llevado a cabo desde el Servicio de Microbiología Clínica del Hospital Universitario deNavarra en la pandemia de COVID-19 y, en concreto, en nuestra comunidad, Navarra. Más de dos años después y, sin dejar de lado el profundo impacto sanitario, familiar y socialque ha tenido, debemos quedarnos con lo positivo del aprendizaje profesional y personaladquirido para aplicarlo en nuestro día a día, así como para las futuras pandemias que vengan.(AU)

The subversion of toll-like receptor signaling by bacterial and viral proteases during the development of infectious diseases.

Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) that respond to pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs). The recognition of specific microbial ligands by TLRs triggers an innate immune response and also promotes adaptive immunity, which is necessary for the efficient elimination of invading pathogens. Successful pathogens have therefore evolved strategies to subvert and/or manipulate TLR signaling. Both the impairment and uncontrolled activation of TLR signaling can harm the host, causing tissue destruction and allowing pathogens to proliferate, thus favoring disease progression. In this context, microbial proteases are key virulence factors that modify components of the TLR signaling pathway. In this review, we discuss the role of bacterial and viral proteases in the manipulation of TLR signaling, highlighting the importance of these enzymes during the development of infectious diseases.

[Medication law and mechanism of traditional Chinese medicine in prevention and treatment of epidemic diseases: based on traditional Chinese medicine theory of cold pestilence].

Epidemic diseases have caused huge harm to the society. Traditional Chinese medicine(TCM) has made great contributions to the prevention and treatment of them. It is of great reference value for fighting diseases and developing drugs to explore the medication law and mechanism of TCM under TCM theory. In this study, the relationship between the TCM theory of cold pestilence and modern epidemic diseases was investigated. Particularly, the the relationship of coronavirus disease 2019(COVID-19), severe acute respiratory syndrome(SARS), and influenza A(H1 N1) with the cold pestilence was identified and analyzed. The roles of TCM theory of cold pestilence in preventing and treating modern epidemic diseases were discussed. Then, through data mining and textual research, prescriptions for the treatment of cold pestilence were collected from major databases and relevant ancient books, and their medication laws were examined through analysis of high-frequency medicinals and medicinal pairs, association rules analysis, and cluster analysis. For example, the prescriptions with high confidence levels were identified: "Glycyrrhizae Radix et Rhizoma-Bupleuri Radix-Paeoniae Radix Alba" "Glycyrrhizae Radix et Rhizoma-Pinelliae Rhizoma-Bupleuri Radix", and TCM treatment methods with them were analyzed by clustering analysis to yield the medicinal combinations: "Zingiberis Rhizoma-Aconiti Lateralis Radix Praeparata-Ginseng Radix et Rhizoma" "Poria-Atractylodis Macrocephalae Rhizoma" "Cinnamomi Ramulus-Asari Radix et Rhizoma" "Citri Reticulatae Pericarpium-Perillae Folium" "Pinelliae Rhizoma-Magnoliae Officinalis Cortex-Atractylodis Rhizoma" "Paeoniae Radix Alba-Angelicae Sinensis Radix-Glycyrrhizae Radix et Rhizoma-Bupleuri Radix-Scutellariae Radix-Rhizoma Zingiberis Recens" "Ephedrae Herba-Armeniacae Semen Amarum-Gypsum Fibrosum" "Chuanxiong Rhizoma-Notopterygii Rhizoma et Radix-Angelicae Dahuricae Radix-Platycodonis Radix-Saposhnikoviae Radix". Then, according to the medication law for cold pestilence, the antiviral active components of medium-frequency and high-frequency medicinals were retrieved. It was found that these components exerted the antiviral effect by inhibiting virus replication, regulating virus proteins and antiviral signals, and suppressing protease activity. Based on network pharmacology, the mechanisms of the medicinals against severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus(SARS-CoV), 2019 novel coronavirus(2019-nCoV), and H1 N1 virus were explored. It was determined that the key targets were tumor necrosis factor(TNF), endothelial growth factor A(VEGFA), serum creatinine(SRC), epidermal growth factor receptor(EGFR), matrix metalloproteinase 9(MMP9), mitogen-activated protein kinase 14(MAPK14), and prostaglandin-endoperoxide synthase 2(PTGS2), which were involved the mitogen-activated protein kinase(MAPK) pathway, advanced glycation end-products(AGE)-receptor for AGE(RAGE) pathway, COVID-19 pathway, and mTOR pathway. This paper elucidated the medication law and mechanism of TCM for the prevention and treatment of epidemic diseases under the guidance of TCM theory of cold pestilence, in order to build a bridge between the theory and modern epidemic diseases and provide reference TCM methods for the prevention and treatment of modern epidemic diseases and ideas for the application of data mining to TCM treatment of modern diseases.

Molecular Diagnostics for Ocular Infectious Diseases: LXXVIII Edward Jackson Memorial Lecture.

PURPOSE: To review the use of molecular diagnostic techniques in the management of ocular infectious disease. DESIGN: Retrospective review. METHODS: A combination of literature review and personal recollections are used. RESULTS: Although the broad term molecular diagnostics may encompass techniques to identify pathogens via protein or metabolomic signatures, this review concentrates on detection of pathogen nucleic acid as an indicator of infection. The introduction of the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) in 1985 opened a new era in analysis of nucleic acids. This technique was soon applied to the detection of potential pathogen DNA and RNA, including viruses, bacteria, and parasites in infectious eye disease. Advances in PCR have allowed class-specific diagnostics (ie, pan-bacterial and pan-fungal), quantitation of pathogen DNA, and multiplexed testing. The Human Genome Project in the early 2000s greatly accelerated development of DNA sequencers, ushering in the era of "Next Generation Sequencing" and permitting pathogen-agnostic methods for the detection of potential infectious agents. Most recently, new technologies such as nanopore sequencing have reduced both cost and equipment requirements for whole-genome sequencing; when coupled with real-time sequence analysis methods, these methods offer the promise of true, real-time, point-of-service ocular infectious disease diagnostics. CONCLUSIONS: Molecular methods for pathogen detection have greatly advanced the diagnosis of ocular infectious disease. Further methodologic advances will have a direct impact on the management of these conditions.

VEuPathDB: the eukaryotic pathogen, vector and host bioinformatics resource center.

The Eukaryotic Pathogen, Vector and Host Informatics Resource (VEuPathDB, https://veupathdb.org) represents the 2019 merger of VectorBase with the EuPathDB projects. As a Bioinformatics Resource Center funded by the National Institutes of Health, with additional support from the Welllcome Trust, VEuPathDB supports >500 organisms comprising invertebrate vectors, eukaryotic pathogens (protists and fungi) and relevant free-living or non-pathogenic species or hosts. Designed to empower researchers with access to Omics data and bioinformatic analyses, VEuPathDB projects integrate >1700 pre-analysed datasets (and associated metadata) with advanced search capabilities, visualizations, and analysis tools in a graphic interface. Diverse data types are analysed with standardized workflows including an in-house OrthoMCL algorithm for predicting orthology. Comparisons are easily made across datasets, data types and organisms in this unique data mining platform. A new site-wide search facilitates access for both experienced and novice users. Upgraded infrastructure and workflows support numerous updates to the web interface, tools, searches and strategies, and Galaxy workspace where users can privately analyse their own data. Forthcoming upgrades include cloud-ready application architecture, expanded support for the Galaxy workspace, tools for interrogating host-pathogen interactions, and improved interactions with affiliated databases (ClinEpiDB, MicrobiomeDB) and other scientific resources, and increased interoperability with the Bacterial & Viral BRC.

A Multicenter Study of Real-world Practice for Management of Abnormal Liver Function Tests in Children with Acute Infectious Diseases.

BACKGROUND: Abnormal liver function tests (LFTs) are commonly seen in pediatric patients with acute infectious diseases. Few studies and no definite clinical guidelines for these conditions are available. The present study aimed to elucidate the causes and factors associated with prolongation of liver enzyme elevation. We also investigated actual real-world practices in Korea. METHODS: A retrospective study was performed on all patients younger than 18 years, who visited six tertiary teaching hospitals around Korea in 2018 for acute infectious diseases and showed alanine aminotransferase (ALT) levels above 60 IU/L without other specific conditions that could cause ALT elevation. We categorized the infections that cause LFT elevation into six groups: respiratory infection, gastrointestinal infection, urinary tract infection, other febrile disease, Epstein-Barr virus infection, and cytomegalovirus infection. We collected data on the medical specialty of the attending physician who followed up the subject, follow-up duration, percentage of follow-up loss, and their investigation. RESULTS: A total of 613 patients were enrolled in this study, half of whom (50.7%) were younger than 12 months. The mean initial aspartate aminotransferase and ALT values were 171.2 ± 274.1 and 194.9 ± 316.1 IU/L (range 23-2,881, 60-2,949 IU/L), respectively; however, other LFTs were within the normal range. Respiratory infection was the most common diagnosis (45.0%), and rhinovirus was the most commonly identified pathogen (9.8%). The follow-up rate was higher with pediatric gastroenterologists (90.5%) and non-gastroenterology pediatricians (76.4%) than with pediatric residents and emergency doctors. Older age was related to better ALT recovery (odds ratio [OR] of age for month = 1.003; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.001-1.004; P = 0.004), while the number of infection episodes (OR = 0.626; 95% CI, 0.505-0.777; P < 0.001) was associated with poor ALT recovery. Abdominal sonography was the most commonly used diagnostic tool (36.9%), followed by the hepatotropic virus workup. The modalities of hepatitis workup were significantly differently applied by physicians based on their specialties and institutions. CONCLUSION: Abnormal liver function test after a systemic infection was common in respiratory infection and under the age of 1 year. Age, number of infections, and initial results of LFTs were related to ALT recovery time. Inter-physician, inter-institution, and inter-specialty variances were observed in real-world practice.

Bacterial Epidemiology and Antimicrobial Resistance Profiles in Children Reported by the ISPED Program in China, 2016 to 2020.

The Infectious Disease Surveillance of Pediatrics (ISPED) program was established in 2015 to monitor and analyze the trends of bacterial epidemiology and antimicrobial resistance (AMR) in children. Clinical bacterial isolates were collected from 11 tertiary care children's hospitals in China in 2016 to 2020. Antimicrobial susceptibility testing was carried out using the Kirby-Bauer method or automated systems, with interpretation according to the Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute 2019 breakpoints. A total of 288,377 isolates were collected, and the top 10 predominant bacteria were Escherichia coli, Streptococcus pneumoniae, Staphylococcus aureus, Haemophilus influenzae, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Moraxella catarrhalis, Streptococcus pyogenes, Staphylococcus epidermidis, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Acinetobacter baumannii. In 2020, the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic year, we observed a significant reduction in the proportion of respiratory tract samples (from 56.9% to 44.0%). A comparable reduction was also seen in the primary bacteria mainly isolated from respiratory tract samples, including S. pneumoniae, H. influenzae, and S. pyogenes. Multidrug-resistant organisms (MDROs) in children were commonly observed and presented higher rates of drug resistance than sensitive strains. The proportions of carbapenem-resistant K. pneumoniae (CRKP), carbapenem-resistant A. baumannii (CRAB), carbapenem-resistant P. aeruginosa (CRPA), and methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) strains were 19.7%, 46.4%%, 12.8%, and 35.0%, respectively. The proportions of CRKP, CRAB, and CRPA strains all showed decreasing trends between 2015 and 2020. Carbapenem-resistant Enterobacteriaceae (CRE) and CRPA gradually decreased with age, while CRAB showed the opposite trend with age. Both CRE and CRPA pose potential threats to neonates. MDROs show very high levels of AMR and have become an urgent threat to children, suggesting that effective monitoring of AMR and antimicrobial stewardship among children in China are required. IMPORTANCE AMR, especially that involving multidrug-resistant organisms (MDROs), is recognized as a global threat to human health; AMR renders infections increasingly difficult to treat, constituting an enormous economic burden and producing tremendous negative impacts on patient morbidity and mortality rates. There are many surveillance programs in the world to address AMR profiles and MDRO prevalence in humans. However, published studies evaluating the overall AMR rates or MDRO distributions in children are very limited or are of mixed quality. In this study, we showed the bacterial epidemiology and resistance profiles of primary pathogens in Chinese children from 2016 to 2020 for the first time, analyzed MDRO distributions with time and with age, and described MDROs' potential threats to children, especially low-immunity neonates. Our study will be very useful to guide antiinfection therapy in Chinese children, as well as worldwide pediatric patients.

Detection of Pathogens of Acute Febrile Illness Using Polymerase Chain Reaction from Dried Blood Spots.

Quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) of dried blood spots (DBS) for pathogen detection is a potentially convenient method for infectious disease diagnosis. This study tested 115 DBS samples paired with whole blood specimens of children and adolescent from Burkina Faso, Sudan, and Madagascar by qPCR for a wide range of pathogens, including protozoans, helminths, fungi, bacteria, and viruses. Plasmodium spp. was consistently detected from DBS but yielded a mean cycle threshold (Ct) 5.7 ± 1.6 higher than that from whole blood samples. A DBS qPCR Ct cutoff of 27 yielded 94.1% sensitivity and 95.1% specificity against the whole blood qPCR cutoff of 21 that has been previously suggested for malaria diagnosis. For other pathogens investigated, DBS testing yielded a sensitivity of only 8.5% but a specificity of 98.6% compared with whole blood qPCR. In sum, direct PCR of DBS had reasonable performance for Plasmodium but requires further investigation for the other pathogens assessed in this study.

Synthetic Microbiomes on the Rise-Application in Deciphering the Role of Microbes in Host Health and Disease.

The intestinal microbiota conveys significant benefits to host physiology. Although multiple chronic disorders have been associated with alterations in the intestinal microbiota composition and function, it is still unclear whether these changes are a cause or a consequence. Hence, to translate microbiome research into clinical application, it is necessary to provide a proof of causality of host-microbiota interactions. This is hampered by the complexity of the gut microbiome and many confounding factors. The application of gnotobiotic animal models associated with synthetic communities allows us to address the cause-effect relationship between the host and intestinal microbiota by reducing the microbiome complexity on a manageable level. In recent years, diverse bacterial communities were assembled to analyze the role of microorganisms in infectious, inflammatory, and metabolic diseases. In this review, we outline their application and features. Furthermore, we discuss the differences between human-derived and model-specific communities. Lastly, we highlight the necessity of generating novel synthetic communities to unravel the microbial role associated with specific health outcomes and disease phenotypes. This understanding is essential for the development of novel non-invasive targeted therapeutic strategies to control and modulate intestinal microbiota in health and disease.

Partial reproduction of ear-tip necrosis suggests an infectious, initially bacterial aetiology.

Swine ear-tip necrosis (ETN) is a disease of global presence and unclear aetiology. Little evidence is available regarding the nature of this disease. The aim of this work was to investigate if ETN is an infectious disease that could be replicated using a lesion macerate inoculum. A source farm with a history of ear-tip necrosis was identified and five weeks-old pigs (n = 12) from this farm were housed under controlled conditions and intradermally inoculated with ETN lesion macerates (right ear, n = 10) or sterile inoculum (left ear, n = 10). Two pigs were not inoculated, serving as sentinels. All animals were clinically monitored daily during 21 days, and a ETN ear score was used to follow disease progression. Anaerobic (n = 2) and aerobic (n = 2) overnight cultures, as well as raw aliquots of the lesion macerate inoculum (n = 2) and control inoculum (n = 2) were submitted for metagenomic sequencing. All inoculated ears developed lesions suggestive of early ETN, but none progressed to result in loss of the ear pinna. All completely resolved 21 days post-inoculation. Post-mortem investigation revealed areas of fibrosis, characterized by a granulomatous response in the inoculated ears (5/10) and in 1/10 control ears. Metagenomic analysis identified the presence of previously suggested bacterial etiological agents, but no relevant viral, fungal or protozoan agents in the inoculum. ETN etiology remains unclear, but an infectious cause and bacterial agents are suggested to be at least partially implicated in disease pathogenesis. Virus and fungi do not seem to significantly contribute to disease.

Nanomedicine as a promising strategy for the theranostics of infectious diseases.

Infectious diseases caused by bacteria, viruses, and fungi and their global spread pose a great threat to human health. The 2019 World Health Organization report predicted that infection-related mortality will be similar to cancer mortality by 2050. Particularly, the global cumulative numbers of the recent outbreak of coronavirus disease (COVID-19) have reached 110.7 million cases and over 2.4 million deaths as of February 23, 2021. Moreover, the crisis of these infectious diseases exposes the many problems of traditional diagnosis, treatment, and prevention, such as time-consuming and unselective detection methods, the emergence of drug-resistant bacteria, serious side effects, and poor drug delivery. There is an urgent need for rapid and sensitive diagnosis as well as high efficacy and low toxicity treatments. The emergence of nanomedicine has provided a promising strategy to greatly enhance detection methods and drug treatment efficacy. Owing to their unique optical, magnetic, and electrical properties, nanoparticles (NPs) have great potential for the fast and selective detection of bacteria, viruses, and fungi. NPs exhibit remarkable antibacterial activity by releasing reactive oxygen species and metal ions, exerting photothermal effects, and causing destruction of the cell membrane. Nano-based delivery systems can further improve drug permeability, reduce the side effects of drugs, and prolong systemic circulation time and drug half-life. Moreover, effective drugs against COVID-19 are still lacking. Recently, nanomedicine has shown great potential to accelerate the development of safe and novel anti-COVID-19 drugs. This article reviews the fundamental mechanisms and the latest developments in the treatment and diagnosis of bacteria, viruses, and fungi and discusses the challenges and perspectives in the application of nanomedicine.

A retrospective observational study of the impact of 16s and 18s ribosomal RNA PCR on antimicrobial treatment over seven years: A tertiary hospital experience.

BACKGROUND: Although culture-based methods remain a staple element of microbiology analysis, advanced molecular methods increasingly supplement the testing repertoire. Since the advent of 16s and 18s ribosomal RNA PCR in the 2000s, there has been interest in its utility for pathogen detection. Nonetheless, studies assessing the impact on antimicrobial prescribing are limited. We report a single-centre experience of the influence of 16s and 18s PCR testing on antimicrobial treatment, including a cost-analysis. METHODS: Data were collected retrospectively for all samples sent for 16s and 18s PCR testing between January 2014 and December 2020. Results were compared to any culture-based result. Assessment focused on any change of antimicrobial treatment based on PCR result, or use of the result as supportive evidence for microbiological diagnosis. RESULTS: 310 samples relevant to 268 patients were referred for 16s/18s rRNA PCR testing during the period. Culture was performed for 234 samples. Enrichment culture was performed for 83 samples. 82 of 300 samples sent for 16s PCR had positive results (20.8%). When culture was performed, enrichment reduced the outcome of 16s PCR only positive results (4/36 [11.1%] versus 14/35 [40.0%], p = 0.030 where a pathogen found). 18s PCR yielded 9 positive results from 67 samples. The 16s PCR result influenced antimicrobial change for 6 patients (2.2%). We estimated the cost for 16s PCR testing to result in one significant change in antimicrobial therapy to be €3,340. 18s PCR did not alter antimicrobial treatment. CONCLUSION: There was limited impact of 16s PCR results on antimicrobial treatments. Relevance to practice was affected by relatively long turn-around-time for results. Utility may be increased in specialised surgical centres, or by reducing turn-around-time. Enrichment culture should be considered on samples where 16s PCR is requested. There remains limited evidence for use of 18s PCR in clinical management, and further studies in this area are likely warranted.

Caco-2/HT29-MTX co-cultured cells as a model for studying physiological properties and toxin-induced effects on intestinal cells.

Infectious gastrointestinal diseases are frequently caused by toxins secreted by pathogens which may impair physiological functions of the intestines, for instance by cholera toxin or by heat-labile enterotoxin. To obtain a functional model of the human intestinal epithelium for studying toxin-induced disease mechanisms, differentiated enterocyte-like Caco-2 cells were co-cultured with goblet cell-like HT29-MTX cells. These co-cultures formed a functional epithelial barrier, as characterized by a high electrical resistance and the presence of physiological intestinal properties such as glucose transport and chloride secretion which could be demonstrated electrophysiologically and by measuring protein expression. When the tissues were exposed to cholera toxin or heat-labile enterotoxin in the Ussing chamber, cholera toxin incubation resulted in an increase in short-circuit currents, indicating an increase in apical chloride secretion. This is in line with typical cholera toxin-induced secretory diarrhea in humans, while heat-labile enterotoxin only showed an increase in short-circuit-current in Caco-2 cells. This study characterizes for the first time the simultaneous measurement of physiological properties on a functional and structural level combined with the epithelial responses to bacterial toxins. In conclusion, using this model, physiological responses of the intestine to bacterial toxins can be investigated and characterized. Therefore, this model can serve as an alternative to the use of laboratory animals for characterizing pathophysiological mechanisms of enterotoxins at the intestinal level.

Chains of evidence from correlations to causal molecules in microbiome-linked diseases.

Human-associated microorganisms play a vital role in human health, and microbial imbalance has been linked to a wide range of disease states. In this Review, we explore recent efforts to progress from correlative studies that identify microorganisms associated with human disease to experiments that establish causal relationships between microbial products and host phenotypes. We propose that successful efforts to uncover phenotypes often follow a chain of evidence that proceeds from (1) association studies; to (2) observations in germ-free animals and antibiotic-treated animals and humans; to (3) fecal microbiota transplants (FMTs); to (4) identification of strains; and then (5) molecules that elicit a phenotype. Using this experimental 'funnel' as our guide, we explore how the microbiota contributes to metabolic disorders and hypertension, infections, and neurological conditions. We discuss the potential to use FMTs and microbiota-inspired therapies to treat human disease as well as the limitations of these approaches.

Oligonucleotide aptamers for pathogen detection and infectious disease control.

During an epidemic or pandemic, the primary task is to rapidly develop precise diagnostic approaches and effective therapeutics. Oligonucleotide aptamer-based pathogen detection assays and control therapeutics are promising, as aptamers that specifically recognize and block pathogens can be quickly developed and produced through simple chemical synthesis. This work reviews common aptamer-based diagnostic techniques for communicable diseases and summarizes currently available aptamers that target various pathogens, including the SARS-CoV-2 virus. Moreover, this review discusses how oligonucleotide aptamers might be leveraged to control pathogen propagation and improve host immune system responses. This review offers a comprehensive data source to the further develop aptamer-based diagnostics and therapeutics specific for infectious diseases.